谢国忠: 下一次金融危机
正在破灭中的美国次级抵押贷款泡沫,暗示着目前的全球流动性泡沫很可能会在2008年终结,并以华尔街衍生品市场的崩溃为开端
亚洲金融危机十周年之际,全世界媒体都把目光投向亚洲,在此找寻下一次危机的线索。他们将无功而返,因为下一次金融危机最有可能会在华尔街爆发,特别是金融衍生品泡沫可能破灭。
与房地产业、新兴市场和息差交易相比,巨幅增长的债券衍生品(debt derivative products)才是今天流动性泡沫问题的核心。这一市场的总和已经相当于世界GDP的7倍。借贷成本因此被人为降低,借贷需求也由此膨胀,成为今天流动性问题的关键。如果这一泡沫破灭,融资成本将大幅上升,从而触发全球性的经济衰退。
如果全球通货膨胀加速,将迫使各国央行以更快的速度升息。当银根紧缩达到某个临界点时,流动性不足就会成为泡沫破裂的导火索。正在破灭中的美国次级抵押贷款泡沫,暗示着目前的全球流动性泡沫很可能会在2008年终结,并以华尔街衍生品市场的崩溃为开端。
衍生品繁荣滥觞
流动性一词已成为这个时代的流行语。对它的一个通俗理解是,有无数金钱正排着大队涌入金融市场。在华尔街,衡量流动性的指标就是短期内金融机构所能使用的货币。金融机构手中有多少钱可用来投资呢?这要看两方面因素:第一,最终投资者的投入(主要是家庭储蓄);第二,信用条件(借贷资金的难易程度)。
第一个因素表现为上升的储蓄率。美联储主席伯南克就用“储蓄过剩”来解释过去数年中债券市场的低收益率。但是,储蓄过剩一说并不被广泛认可,特别是在学术界。IMF的数据似乎表明,过去五年中全球储蓄率几乎没有什么变化。当然,全球的储蓄率很难判断。我的感觉是,在造成流行性泛滥方面,资金成本的下降比储蓄上升扮演了更重要的角色。跨国公司手中握有大把的现金,但它们把生产转移到了中国这样的低成本国家,产业外移减少了对资本的需求,造成它们的投资比过去少。部分而言,这比储蓄过剩更能解释全球流动性泛滥的现象。
信用条件的变化可能比储蓄率的波动更重要。除了低收益率国债,本轮经济周期中的信用价差(credit spread)也低得异乎寻常。国债是最安全的资产,因为政府有税收作为履行债务的保证。由其他主体发行的债券,则根据不能履行债务的风险大小被评为若干等级。某一特定级别的债券和国债之间的利率差额被称作信用价差。对于非政府发行的债券的最高级为AAA,最低为BBB。任何低于BBB级的债券都可以被称做垃圾债。对于非专业人士而言,垃圾债是不安全的。
上世纪90年代,被穆迪评为AAA级的公司债收益率通常较美国国债高145个基点,最高为2002年10月时的327个基点。2007年1月,这一差距已缩小到仅65个基点。信用价差的缩小在低评级债券上表现得更为明显。这种风险溢价的缩小在相当程度上抵消了美联储升息带来的紧缩效应。这也是PE(私人股权投资基金)可以在连续加息之后依然大发其财的原因所在。过去一个月中,这种风险溢价水平迅速回升,因为投资者开始担忧,由杠杆收购所驱动的公司债市场可能会面临和次级抵押贷款市场一样的风险。
本轮周期中,低得异乎寻常的信用价差主要是金融创新的结果。衍生品的发展使信用风险能够在更大的范围内被分散,这也怂恿了投资者去冒更大的风险。这本应是件好事,但绝大多数时候,风险分散都更接近于一种感觉而不是现实。很多衍生品的低流动性也导致它们被金融机构错误地定价,这些机构等于在故意误导投资者,其背后可能是一个巨大的骗局。
风险溢价(risk premium)是金融经济学中的一个基本概念。投资者必须为包含了比国债更多风险的资产要求更高的回报。例如,如果BBB级债券成为坏账的概率为每年1%,投资者就会要求BBB级债的收益率比国债高出超过1%。不过,如果一个投资者投资100家公司的债券,而这些公司不履行债务的可能性又是不相关的,根据大数定理,他每年将因坏账遭受1%的损失。因此,他应该只对BBB级债要求高于国债1%的收益,这里并不存在风险溢价。多元化的资产配置可能是经济学中惟一的“免费午餐”。
衍生品市场的繁荣,很大程度上是受到金融市场资产多元化需求的驱动。持有公司债的投资者可以在不买卖其债券的情况下,利用衍生品对冲债券无法兑付的风险。关于不良债券的期权市场迅速膨胀,而整个债券衍生品市场理论上已达到400万亿美元的规模,相当于全球GDP的七倍,或全球所有债券价值的三倍。这相当于每张债券平均被重新买卖了三次。
??? 无论风险是在表面上还是在实际上被对冲了,这些衍生品都刺激了投资者对风险资产的需求,并在总体上降低了市场的风险溢价。
衍生品繁荣泡沫
有几个因素表明,今天衍生品市场的繁荣是一个泡沫。首先,多数多元化配置都是不真实的。尽管公司间可能看似相互独立,但来自不同行业的公司间的盈利依然可能是相关的。这和经济周期有关。当经济变得不景气时,所有行业都会受到负面影响。对债券投资者而言,完全的风险多元化配置是不可能的。因此,风险溢价应当永远存在。
其次,衍生品定价可能被扭曲。布莱克-斯科尔斯(Black-Scholes)公式是用来为期权定价的。过去五年中,期权市场的扩张变得无以复加,新品种层出不穷。通常,新出现的交易品种的可流动性并不高。这就违反了布莱克-斯科尔斯公式有效的前提假设,即市场必须是可自由流通的、连贯的、随机的。多数公司债和资产证券化(ABS)的规模都很小。这时候期权的定价可能仅取决于个人的臆测。投资银行不遗余力地向投资者推介衍生品,有时它们甚至为此设立基金,用别人的钱去买这些产品。投资银行是这场衍生品泡沫中的“看得见的手”。
更重要的一点是,金融欺骗可能也是推动此轮衍生品泡沫的部分因素。很多此类金融衍生品的买家都是小型对冲基金。因为这些产品流动性差,其价格在相当程度上是自我定价的。拥有这些产品的对冲基金可以人为操纵价格,并到投资人那里去邀功,它们还为自己的“良好业绩”给自己开出奖金支票。当然,这种价格泡沫也向其他领域扩张。很多对冲基金大量持有小公司的股票,随意操纵它们的股价,就像中国股市里的庄家一样。PE也会抬高处于它们投资组合中的公司的价格。由于它们所持有的公司通常没有上市,做高这些公司的价格甚至更容易。不过,它们面临的问题是,在把投资套现之前,它们不能给自己发奖金。
金融欺骗催生了对债券衍生品的需求。这也可能成为推动衍生品泡沫的原因。随后,衍生品推动信贷需求,并导致全球信贷泡沫。这也播下了金融危机的种子。当持有债券衍生品的基金出现流动性问题时,它们从“业绩良好”转眼就变成“资不抵债”。次级抵押贷款市场的泡沫破裂可能殃及其他领域,甚至推倒整个信贷市场。
目前,多数市场专家都在试图稳定市场,宣传次级抵押贷款仅是一个孤立的问题。我认为事实恰恰相反。次级抵押贷款只是泡沫的冰山一角。这一泡沫起源于金融机构向投资者兜售那些天书般难懂的金融衍生产品,又不断推高它们的价格。几年前我就参加过一个会议,出席的人分别来自对冲基金和它们的投资者。其中一些基金专注于债券衍生品交易,听众对基金经理们所作的介绍一片茫然。他们离开时,就认为找到了一种容易赚钱的高技术手段。正是这种无知养虎成患。
泡沫破裂链条
衍生品的繁荣对保持资金的低成本至关重要,这又驱动了信贷需求。但流动性水平应当由央行决定。当利率低时,市场需求更多的货币,反之亦然。衍生品的繁荣在央行没有行动的情况下,推低了利率水平,其效应与央行降息是一样的。信用价差之低意味着利率至少被压低了200个基点。资金价格不断降低,甚至在某种意义上架空了央行的货币政策。不知不觉间,各国央行让一个巨大的信贷泡沫控制了全球经济。
华尔街著名投行贝尔斯登最近将旗下的两只对冲基金清盘。这两只基金的投资对象,正是次级抵押贷款市场中的高评级债券衍生品。高风险的次级抵押贷款可以被集中成一个资产池,并用于发行资产支持证券。这个资产池获得的收益可以按比例分配给资产支持证券(即资产证券化后的证券)的持有人,其中一些拥有优先受偿权。如果部分贷款成为坏账的话,这部分优先级的投资者不会遭到损失。
但这种人为的对不同风险级别的区分其实是无用的。次级抵押贷款市场的风险主要在宏观层面。如果宏观条件恶化,大量次级抵押贷款就会一起变成坏账。此时,即使投资者拥有像贝尔斯登这两家基金那样的最优先级的资产支持证券,也会像其他投资者一样蚀本。这就是为什么这两只基金会变得一文不值。
次级抵押贷款泡沫破裂之后,下一个遭殃的是美国公司债市场。最近,这个市场中的消息并不乐观。很多银行已经承诺,要为一些已经宣布的交易发行债券。这变成一种自拉自唱的交易,即如果市场不买的话,银行自己会买下这些债券。不幸的是,市场正在对这些债券失去兴趣,而很多银行手中还大量持有这些债券,如果真在市场中交易的话,它们大概要损失30%的价值。这些债券价值的总和可能超过2000亿美元。这就是华尔街投行的股票只有九倍2007年预期市盈率的原因。这种低估值反映了市场对金融危机的预期。
美国经济每次遭遇衰退前,风险溢价都会上升。这次应该也不会例外。次级抵押贷款的危机已经蔓延到由PE推动的杠杆收购债券上。未来一年中,这种利差扩大的效应相当于美联储将利率提高200个基点。联储能大幅减息以缓冲融资成本的上涨么?很不幸,答案是否定的。美国正面临着明显的通货膨胀压力,通胀年率已经超过6%。美元的疲软也会加剧通胀压力,联储的政策空间并不大。而且这是债市从不正常向正常回归的过程,联储也不应该阻止。但是,这种回归的一个副产品可能是经济的衰退。
如果美国经济在2008年因资金价格上涨而陷入衰退,将对全球经济和金融市场产生巨大影响。例如,大宗商品市场的牛市会为此终结。尽管中国占了大宗商品需求增量中的大部分,美国需求在总量中的份额依然更大。大宗商品特别是石油的牛市,将随着美国的衰退而结束。
经济衰退将大幅降低美国的贸易赤字。而庞大的不断增长的美国贸易赤字支持了新兴市场国家的流动性泡沫,这些国家的贸易盈余又支撑了它们的货币增长和资产价格。美国经济的衰退等于釜底抽薪。新兴市场国家的股票和不动产在2008年也将面临深幅调整。
无论如何,2008恐怕不是轻松的一年。
[affyoligo (8-10 10:04, Long long ago)]
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这个孩子唱空了多少年啦[xiaohu (8-10 10:08, Long long ago)] [ 传统版 | sForum ][登录后回复]2楼
他的世界早就爆炸了。[speculatist (8-10 10:10, Long long ago)] [ 传统版 | sForum ][登录后回复]3楼
世上本无天师.每天喊跌,迟早有一天会跌的嘛,等到真的跌了,也就成了天师.[欢乐股市 (8-10 10:15, Long long ago)] [ 传统版 | sForum ][登录后回复]4楼
当年着孩子一边狂喊跌,东家摩根悄悄建仓,可是大赚了一笔阿[割吧,都焦了 (8-10 10:29, Long long ago)] [ 传统版 | sForum ][登录后回复]5楼
(引用 欢乐股市:世上本无天师.每天喊跌,迟早有一天会跌的嘛,等到真的跌了,也就成了天师.)谢国忠其人俺站在客观的立场讲几句:
谢国忠以准确预测97“亚洲金融风暴“一战成名,之后,对中国的房事与股市预测基本是相反的。
但也许人家有预测大型风暴的能耐,而较小型的事态的就测不准了。
尽管如此,亦有大批追随者。
如不是对新加坡说三道四,依然在那家大摩位高权重。
而对于炒股人士,涨有涨到做法,跌也有跌的做法。
哈哈。。。
[涨挺板 (8-10 10:36, Long long ago)]
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他提到的目前流动性过剩和制造业向发展中国家迁移的关联性提供了另一个角度思考经济全球化和众多发展中国家的经济开放,使得产业链中的生产制造环节加速向这些成本低廉国家迁移,使得资金需求大为降低。 剩余下来的资金四处乱窜,冒险的冲动也增加了。
现在,这些富裕国家享受着从发展中国家运送过来的大量低廉的产品,却又开始指责他们污染了地球,然后还开始挑三拣四了,挑剔这些廉价产品质量不好,不安全。 这些对质量安全以及环境保护的要求势必会增加制造业的生产成本,资金需求也就随着增加,最终过剩的资金应该会慢慢减少。[affyoligo (8-10 10:38, Long long ago)]
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BNP Freeze Causes Carry Trades & Central Banks to React inLiquidity to Plunge and
Thursday, 09 August 2007 15:16:20 GMT
Written by Kathy Lien, Chief Strategist
------------------------------------------------------------------------
There is no denying the fact that the subprime problems have now gone
global. This morning, France's largest bank, BNP Paribas SA announced
that they were freezing withdrawals from three of their investments
funds following the "complete evaporation of liquidity." For BNP,
this may not be a big deal because the three funds represent only 1.6
billion out of the 356 billion euros that they have under management,
but for the rest of the world, this is huge.
The victims of the subprime contagion is no longer limited to just
small banks, and mortgage lenders, but is now hitting Tier 1 banks
around the world. As a direct result of BNP's announcement, overnight
LIBOR rates skyrocketed to six year highs, stocks plummeted and carry
trades sold off across the board. The situation became so severe that
for the first time since 2001, the ECB stepped in and injected
liquidity into the markets. The latest liquidity squeeze has broad
ramifications for the global markets. Flight to safety will become
the new trend, especially if we see a sharp increase in margin calls.
Traders and investors will be moving back to cash, which in most cases
means that they will be parking their money in US dollars. The
greenback is already stronger against every major currency with the
exception of the Japanese Yen and this is only because USD/JPY is a
carry trade currency.
ECB and Federal Reserve Step In
This morning the LIBOR rate rose by the fastest pace since June 2004,
triggering a wave of concern amongst central banks. In dollar terms,
the overnight lending rate jumped from 5.35 percent to 5.86 percent, a
six year high. Euro rates climbed to 4.7 percent, while sterling rates
hit 6.16 percent (both are new 6 yr highs). Fears of a credit crunch
forced the European Central Bank to step in and inject EUR94.8 billion
in emergency funds to calm the markets. The last time that the
central bank injected liquidity was right after 9/11, which gives the
market a gage of how serious the credit crunch has become. In fact,
the amount injected in September 2001 was only EUR69.3 billion, 25
billion less than today. The Federal Reserve followed suit by adding
$12 billion in temporary reserves via 14-day repurchase agreements.
Unlike the ECB however, the Fed does repurchase operations every week,
the only difference is that the repurchases today were more than
double the amount done last Thursday. Both central banks are trying
desperately to calm the markets. Even the Bank of Canada issued a
statement saying that they are ready to add liquidity to the Canadian
financial system, if necessary. Conditions must have deteriorated
significantly because as recently as two days ago, the FOMC statement
indicated that tighter credit conditions were not a threat. The same
sentiment was relayed by the ECB last week.
Is this the Beginning of the End?
The age of easy money is over and unfortunately, we expect more
problems to come. We will not hit the peak in adjustable rate
mortgage resets until October, when $50 billion in mortgages will
switch to the current market rate. After that, $30 billion in
mortgages will be reset through September 2008, followed by a sharp
fall afterwards. This means that the risk of defaults and late
payments will only continue to grow. Lenders will retrench further
and if the problems exacerbate, it will also raise the risk of a
recession. Volatility indices are up across the board indicating that
risk aversion is growing. For the financial markets, this has broad
ramifications:
Market Ramifications
Caution with Carry Trades: Long Yen traders will probably make out
better than those who are still short Yen. Carry trades thrive in low
volatility environments and the recent movements in the financial
markets is anything but low volatility. Over the past few years, the
popularity of carry trades has made speculation in Japanese Yen
crosses a very leveraged bet. As a result, big moves lower could
easily trigger margin calls. The principle of gravity applies well
here – things fall much faster than they rise. According to one of
our previous Carry Trade Special Reports, the maximum drawdown in a
basket carry trades over the past decade was 10.5 percent. We have
drawn down less than half that amount at this point.
Further Losses in the Stocks: US stocks could also continue to suffer
as investors reduce risk. In the first half of the year, leveraged
buyout deals and stock buybacks fueled a sharp rally in equities.
With the current credit crunch and liquidity squeeze, not only have
these deals been cancelled, but we expect lenders to be far more
selective in the months to come. Unless the Fed sweeps in with a 100
basis point rate cut tomorrow, do not expect the Dow to return to its
all time highs. See our Special Technical report on the Dow and
EUR/JPY.
Rise in US Dollar: In contrast, as the carry trade and other
leveraged bets become unwound, those assets will be parked back in US
dollars for the time being. Do be careful however since the safe
haven status of the US dollar could be counteracted by the possibility
of the Federal Reserve lowering interest rates.
Federal Reserve September Cut?: The futures markets have now fully
priced in a 25bp rate cut next month. This is a sharp shift away from
yesterday's 20 percent probability. If this is true, the Fed will
have to make some sort of announcement expressing their shift in
stance. Although we do think that the subprime problems are severe, a
September rate cut may be a bit premature. Yields on bonds have
already fallen in response to the moves by the central banks today.
ECB September Rate Decision: Unlike the Federal Reserve or other
central banks around the world, the ECB is prohibited from bailing out
banks or anyone for that matter. Therefore if the blowups escalate
and yields to not regulate themselves, the ECB could change its mind
about raising rates in September. For the time being however, current
conditions should not alter the central bank's plans to raise interest
rates in September. They are offering liquidity at the current level
of interest rates (4.00 percent) and not at a lower rate.
Today's developments could be the beginning of a major shift in the
financial markets but even if it is not and US stocks manage to
recover most of its losses, it is still important for traders to be
prepared because volatility has returned and it is not likely to go
away soon. For those who still want to hold onto existing positions
that have become vulnerable to recent market movements, it will be
even more important to look into hedging your portfolio with different
asset classes until calm is restored in the markets.
[banban (8-10 11:04, Long long ago)]
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风险溢价未必导致经济衰退,如果企业能从除了债券市场以外的渠道融资借贷风险溢价对债券市场的打击是跑不了的了
希望证券市场可以获益,而不是被拉下水[邓可 (8-10 15:49, Long long ago)]
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公司债是有受牵连, 但未必如此严重. 而且亚太区的公司LEVERAGE比率严重低于欧美. 自从金融危机之后D/E比一年比一年低, 目前来说距离安全警戒水平还早的很, 这就留下了很多空间. 优质的公司要通过债券市场融资并不很困难, 风险溢价是在调整了, 但应该调整多少谁也不知道怎么定, 目前的状况是连投资者也说不清楚, 一般都通过协商摸索, 整体上看, 对于亚洲资本市场和公司资产结构的优化未必是坏事.
过尤不及, 调整趋向合理长远看应该是健康的.[临江仙 (8-10 16:32, Long long ago)]
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